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    From this body of work it is apparent that ( i) echinoids (sea urchins) and holothuroids (sea cucumbers) are related, and ( ii) crinoids (sea lilies) are the sister taxon to extant eleutherozoan classes (asteroids, ophiuroids, echinoids, and holothuroids).
    A well-supported phylogeny of echinoderm classes has eluded morphological, embryological, molecular, and combined analyses.
    Clades A, B, C and D encompass the two acantharian orders Holacanthida and Chaunacanthida, except for Phyllostaurus echinoides (Ei 68) and Acanthostaurus purpurascens (Vil 45) in clade B ( Figure 1, Figure 2 ), both originally described as belonging to the Arthracanthida.
    Two factors seriously limit analyses of larval and life-cycle evolution in echinoderms. First is the limited understanding of developmental diversity and second is the lack of good phylogenies.
    Regular echinoids include the Cidaroida (pencil urchins) and Echinoida (sea urchins, including the long-spined sea urchin shown above left).
    Because most echinoids have rigid tests, their ability to fossilize is greater than that of more delicate echinoderms such as starfish, and they are common fossils in many deposits. The oldest echinoids, belonging to an extinct regular taxon called the Echinocystitoidea, appear in the fossil record in the late Ordovician .
  2. Larval and life-cycle patterns in echinoderms - Canadian Journal of …

  3. Evolutionary Trends and Their Functional Significance in the Post ...

  4. Phylogenetic relationships of extant echinoderm classes

  5. Phylogenetic relationships of extant echinoderm classes - Ingenta …